http://web.utk.edu/~wrobinso/531_lec_hist.html
"Historians had been better in studying past
politics than past social and economic life. historical studies had tended to
concentrate on events, and on the motives of individuals and institutions, and
they had been less well equipped for analyzing the more anonymous processes and
structures that were located in the longue duree. Structures and
processes seemed to have been neglected. All this was to be changed by
broadening the scope of historical studies: by adding more economic and social
history, in its own right, and as a key to understanding history in
general."
"The social sciences had tools to offer in
the study of dimensions of the past that were "beneath" or
"behind" historical institutions, events, and ideas (dimensions such
as economic change, population growth, social inequality and mobility, mass
attitudes and behavior, social protest, and voting patterns), tools that the
historians did not possess: quantitative methods; analytic concepts like class,
role expectations, or status discrepancy; models of social change. Some
historians sought now to use such 'mass data' as marriage registers, elections
results, and tax documents, and for this the turn to the social sciences proved
indispensable."
"Of course, the field of American history up
into the 1960s was a simpler, more restrictive place resembling an old boys'
club, with leading scholars training their successors in elite departments
reserved mostly for Protestant white men."
"But historians not only spend inordinate
amounts of time with the dead, they work in a field where all the stories have
been told, all the questions answered. Joan of Arc is martyred, Hitler invades
Czechoslovakia: predictable and depressing." ~ Elliott Gorn
By definition and tradition, history requires
written records that can be reviewed and evaluated. Before that is
"pre-history" which has been the domain of anthropologists and
archaeologists. Often, oral history of now lost peoples has been placed with
myth and legend or folklore.
History has frequently been seen as the common
memory of a people and a memory that gives people an identity and a place in
the world. History gives people immortality. It also captures shared ideas,
values, and experiences and may shape future ideas, values, and experiences.
The Serbs are a good example of that as they continue to focus on their past
while ignoring the future. However, collective or common memory may have little
to do with the truth and more to do with myth that makes people feel good.
Stories are often created to advance particular
political, social or economic views. Historians tend to come from and represent
the "winners" in a society. For example, until very recently those
who lost a war rarely had an opportunity to record history from their
perspective and have it shared with a meaningful audience. It will not amaze
that much traditional history is about males and the rich or powerful. Once
certain assumptions are made, historians may ignore sources contrary to those
assumptions. European history relies on European observers, even when that
history focuses on developing countries or colonial experiences.
The historical record is an interpretation. In a very real sense, historians create history--it does
not exist by itself. Historians decide what to study. They select some facts
and ignore others. Many events are ambiguous and need to be interpreted.
Interpretations are likely to reflect typical, strongly held views. As each
generation, looks at the historical record (evidence) it may arrive at a
different interpretation of what happened or what the happening means (the
"so what").
History is the study of the past. History is what
happened in the past. Historians may study anything that is in the past and
affected human beings. One definition says that history is "all that has
been felt, thought, imagined, said and done by human beings." However,
human beings have generally been limited to the rich and powerful, especially
military and political leaders. Thus, history may be seen as great deeds.
If history is limited to recorded (non-oral) evidence,
history is what has been recorded about the past.
Using written records, historian attempt to
reconstruct the past. They focus on the identification, evaluation, and linking
relevant records to learn more about when and where an event happened.
As mentioned above, why an event happened or what
difference it made is almost always the result on an interpretation. Different
historians, examining the same evidence, may arrive at quite different
conclusions. Because of this variability, some argue that history is more of an
art than a science. Facts are organized, analyzed, and interpreted to tell a
particular story. Thus, the historian creates history by selecting
events, facts, and then telling the story.
All subjects may be studied historically. Thus,
history is the most heterogeneous discipline. "Sooner or later, everything
falls into the historian's net." History is either the "Mother
subject" or merely the "past" of all the topics studied by the
other disciplines and professions. For example, does music history belong to
history or to music?
If history is a compelling story, particularly one
that shapes a culture or a people's identity, then is surely must be part of
the humanities. Indeed, for a considerable time, many historians thought of
history as part of literature. Even today, literature and history have strong
linkages.
Given the role of history in creating national
identity, there has been, and continues to be, strong attempts by some leaders
and some historians to create and use historical events for police ends.
Unhappily, history as indoctrination continues to be popular with some
political leaders. Evidence-based historical study, especially if it goes
against popular notions, is not popular in some circles.
Without written evidence, there is no history.
Since historians work with the evidence that survived, the record is likely to
be incomplete or biased. What about the evidence that did not survive? How
complete is the story that we do know? Those who witness and record events are
not likely to be wholly disinterested.
Primary source is evidence created by some one who witnessed the event.
Primary sources are the "stuff" of history. Most remain unpublished
and some are scattered in collections in distant places. Some primary sources
in government agencies may be difficult to locate or placed behind a security
firewall of some kind. Primary source material held by individuals and
corporations may also be unavailable to the historian.
Until recently, history was placed in the
humanities. UNESCO still refuses to consider history as part of the social
sciences. It is only in the last few years that the notion of "scientific
history" has become popular. The notion is that the actual event may be
reconstructed by a systematic, objective inquiry that identifies, retrieves,
evaluates, and interprets a wide variety of evidence. Considerable attention is
given to the genuineness and credibility of the documents examined.
For history to be scientific, there must be
comparison of similar events that may lead to generalizations. Given
examination of enough revolutions, for example, the political historian could
move on to examine and theorize about the model event or the event in the
abstract with its attributes and associations.
Not all agree. Some continue to argue that history
is not a science but a myth--a form of literature. Here, the historian is seen
as novelist, creating a synthesis from a collection of evidence and
transforming that synthesis into a compelling story.
Predictability is central to a scientific
discipline. Certainly, some historians believe that broad laws of of historical
development based on the pattern of many events can be identified and that
these will allow reasonable prediction. For example, based on the study of past
revolutions, the political historian will be able to predict future ones. Scientific
history places more emphasis on why rather than who, what, where, and how.
There is also more emphasis on institutional roles.
Increased government regulation and more accurate
record keeping has created a detailed historical record in most developed countries
which allows historians to work with reasonably large data sets. Population
history and political history which examines voting or public opinion are good
examples. Economic history also is relatively data rich. With large sets of
data, historians can create models that are more likely to have predictive
power. As this type of research becomes more popular, it encourages historians
to focus on recent periods where data is more available.
As history has become more inclusive, borrowing
from the other social science disciplines has increased. Economic history
borrows heavily from economics. Cultural histories borrow from sociology and
anthropology as well as from the humanities. Political history borrows from
political science and so on.
This is one of the most notable trends in recent
historical research. Researchers in the United States have led in identifying,
retrieving, and creating data sets based upon topics, such as political and
economic history where data is more easily found.
This famous French school or approach to
historical research was established by Lucien Febvre and Marc Bloch in 1929.
They moved away from event-oriented history to social history focusing on the
structures within which human life occurred. There was increased interest in
the lives of ordinary people and in including more insights from other
disciplines. This may be called "total history" rather than the
traditional political or institutional history. The Annales school was similar
to the "New History" popular in the U.S. through the 1930s. Annales
researchers were interested in material factors: climate, food, and disease for
example. Statistical data was used where ever possible.
There is considerable dispute about whether
contemporary history can really be history. The notion here is that passions
are too much of a problem and that some distance from the event, 25 years is
frequently mentioned, is necessary for the passions to die an the evidence to
become available as the principals pass away and their papers become available
to historians. It is common for historical figures to deny access to their
papers until those involved are no longer alive.
Since history requires written evidence, it began
with those in the Fertile Crescent and Egypt who recorded religious and
political events on papyrus rolls or clay tablets. The Greeks are often thought
of as the first historians [484-425 BCE] because their historical writings were
more organized and systematic. Herodotus is sometimes called the father of
history as we know it. Political and military history dominated. "History
is past politics and politics is present history."
History and literature were inseparable for centuries
since history was part of the humanities and history was written in the
literary mode.
Each age writes its own history, interpreting the
past in the light of the present. Historical events are used to explain or
enhance contemporary life. Serious collection and preservation of historic
documents began in the 1500s.
After the industrial revolution, interest in
economic history grew substantially.
Historians were amateurs until the 1800s in
Germany where Leopold von
Ranke invented modern academic history. He
focused on collecting primary source material and objective facts which could
then be examined critically. As history became more academic, it became less
popular. The gap between "popular" and academic history began to
grow. Amateur historians flourish, but outside the academic discipline. They
are active in genealogy, local history, and topical history, i.e. railroad or
military history.
In 1859, Historische Zeitschrift was
established. It became the first scholarly historical periodical which still
survives. In 1884, the American Historical Association was established. By the
1890s, the new, rigorous academic history was well established in Germany and
the U.S.
By the1860s, young American students and scholars
had returned from Europe, Germany especially, embued with the scientific spirit
of inquiry. In 1876, the first American History Seminar was held at Johns
Hopkins. The establishment of the AHA in 1884 began the professionalization
process in the U.S. By now, the split between amateur and professional was
clearly visible. Those who made a living writing history now amateurs while
those who mostly teach students became professionals. State and local
historical societies grew rapidly. As history as it becomes professionalized,
there is less "story" in history. History becomes a product for other
historians. In the beginning, political (institutional) history was popular.
History has traditionally been used as a means of
social and political education. Assimilation, shared values, and the
"melting pot" theory assumed that immigrants would become Americans
and identify with American history. This was an important role for history in
public K12 education.
There was an explosion of academic history
programs in the 1960s and 1970s. This produced an explosion in the secondary
literature, especially in the periodical literature. It became increasingly
difficult for the historian to keep up with literature. At the same time, the
new social history bloomed. The war in Vietnam led historians away from national
institutions. Interest in previously disadvantaged groups increased, especially
as members of these groups demanded that their own story be told. History
shifted from "the public life of the nation to the private lives of its
citizens. These historians focused on those previously deemed unworthy of study
such as women, children, native Americans, and the poor. Every day life became
a popular research topic. At the same, there was increased interest in the
history of the non-Western world. Some historians see the result of these
changes as the "fragmentation of the past."
In the past few years, these topics have become
more popular:
There are about 40,000 professional historians in
the U.S. and nearly 60 percent are employed in academe. The job market is bleak
except for replacement positions. Historians are also found in historical
associations, archives, museums, government, and in some public schools. About
1000 academic institutions offer BA programs, about 500 the MA, and there are
more than 100 PH.D.. programs. The leading Ph.D. institutions are: Harvard,
Yale, UCB, Princeton, Columbia, Stanford, Wisconsin, Chicago, Michigan, and
Cornell.
The American Historical Review was
established in 1895 as the membership periodical for the American Historical
Association. It is issued five times per year. At least half of each issue
consists of reviews. Of the 4,000 or so books received in a typical year, 1000
are reviewed. Reviewers are required to have published at least one monograph.
The typical review is about 650 words. The "American" in the title
refers to the name of the society and not to the scope. The AHR is
inclusive and includes history from all places and times. As the membership and
flagship periodical, this is probably the single best collection development
source for the research-oriented library. Review comments are evaluative and
often critical
The Journal of American History is the
membership periodical of the Organization of American Historians. It was
established in 1914 and is a quarterly publication. Typically, it includes
about 600 reviews per year in American history. A typical review is 500 words.
An essential source for nearly every library selecting in this area.
Choice is
the periodical most often used by college and some large public libraries for
selecting historical materials. All reviewers are college history teachers.
Reviews often appear 8 months or so before those in the history periodicals.
However, Choice does not review as many titles and some historical works
are found under non-history subject headings. Choice reviews are also
likely to be less critical than those in the specialist periodicals.
Traditionally, historians have specialized by
place, time, and topic. A large number of history courses include geographic
descriptors such as the history of Spain. Obviously, the U.S. has received the
most attention.
Historians also specialize by time or historical
period. Typical period categories include:
The range of dates associated with a particular
period may vary from scholar to scholar. Typically, about 60 percent of history
courses include a chronological descriptor.
Topical or thematic specializations may be
confusing because of the large number of topics or themes and the lack of
standardization in descriptors. May topics overlap. Typically, about half of
all history courses include a topical frame. These specializations are growing
in popularity while contributing to the fragmentation of the discipline.
The most popular historical specialties:
"History is really an umbrella term covering
a wide variety of specializations that have little in common with each other
but their method."
Political and diplomatic history has been the mainstream of history in the past, especially
since archival research began in the 1800s.
Economic history really began to flourish in the 1900s. It often includes
business history in its broader context. This is also a specialty within the
discipline of economics.
Social and intellectual history is history with the politics and battles removed. It is
often popular with the intelligent lay person. Categories might include:
Current literary theory has had considerable
impact on social history. Popular culture also plays an important role. There
is growing fascination with the evidence of material culture, especially
history of popular culture.
Biography is popular with the ordinary reader.
Recent trends in biographical research and writing, including the use of
psychological insights, have been controversial. Not all biography is objective
and evidence based. Campaign biographies are a good example of that.
Local history is usually published by local or
regional historical societies. Authors are usually amateur historians of
varying experience and knowledge. Local history may be merely the accumulation
of detail and lacking in analysis and interpretation. Local history and
genealogy may overlap.
In the past, important historical figures often
recorded their experiences in diaries and letters. With this sort of
documentary evidence no longer available, oral history may fill the gap. The
interviewer with tape or video recorder ask questions and records responses.
Oral history is a good way to capture the experiences of working class people.
The Columbia University Oral History Collection was one of the first.
Interviews are transcribed and then made available for analysis and
interpretation.
In 1776, there was much historical awareness and
thinking by lawyers and government ministers who saw the revolution within a
rich historical context [history as the usable past]. Americans were conscious
of their role in history, as part of a great cosmic drama unfolding. Until
recently, theme of inevitable triumph over adversity and progress toward a
millennium sanctioned by Divine Providence was widely accepted. Manifest
Destiny is a good example of this thinking.
In contrast, today few government leaders have a
historical perspective or are interested in history.
The great historians of the past such as Bancroft,
Turner, the Beards, and Hofstadter, "combined elegant prose and sweeping
synthesis in ways rarely seen today." This failure to write for a lay
audience may explain why commercial publishers are must less interested in
history today than in the past.
Santayana is famous for his statement that
"He who doesn't know the past is condemned to repeat it." The
contrary view is that every historical event is unique so that knowing the past
does not allow one to safely navigate the future. McLuhan said that "History
is the rear view mirror through which people mistakenly look at the
present."
Given the wider variety of topics of interest to
historians, fragmentation is a visible problem. William McNeill comments on the
"disappearance of a coherent, intelligible history...." Crone adds
that "We've reached the absurd situation in which everybody is frantically
trying to write books and articles that nobody has time to read because
everybody is busy writing books and articles." As historians write more specialized
works for a small, specialist audience, interest in popular history blooms as
seen on the History Channel. However, few historians write that kind of
history.
There is some question about the degree to which
the historical record reflects what actually happened. Historians can re-create
only a small section of the past. Historical events, taken in their context,
are notably complex. As mentioned above, history is an interpretation of the
past rather than a recreation of it. Historians select relevant sources,
relevant data, and relevant facts. The historian, perhaps more than the record,
determines what is recreated.
Memory is unreliable and recollections change over
the course of our lives. As we remember, we may create a past that justifies
and sustains our self-esteem. Data about historical events based on memory,
especially some time after that event, may not be reliable.
One definition of history is that it is the
custodian of our collective memory. History, then, is the primary vehicle for
socialization of the young and bringing together the various elements of a
society. This is particularly important when that society is heterogeneous.
History may also be an integral part of an
indoctrination program that manipulates individuals in attempt to move a
society in certain "approved" directions. Those who wish to use
historical events to indoctrinate are not likely to be comfortable with
historians who ask difficult questions or provide evidence that well loved
assumptions are in error.
There is growing interest among historians in
interdisciplinary approaches. Area studies are a good example. American (really
U.S.), Russian, or East Asian (area) studies rely heavily on history but also
on other social science and humanities disciplines. Women's studies is similar.
Economic, political, and social/cultural history involve substantial
interdisciplinary components.
The changing nature of the historical record is a
topic of continuing concern. By definition, history is based upon written
evidence and we live at a time when written evidence may have a short life.
This is particularly the case with digital messages such as email or
participation in discussion lists or news groups. At the same time, fewer
individuals keep diaries or a substantial paper correspondence.
At the same time, micro formats and digital
records, the American Memory Project is an example, provide access to primary
source material previously unavailable or available only to those who can
travel to a remove site.
Historical revision is the process of
reinterpreting the past on the basis of new evidence or of new interpretations
of existing evidence. It is quite common. However, it has become more popular
in the past few years because those who deny the holocaust call themselves
"revisionists." However, it is difficult to claim a new
interpretation of events in the face of overwhelming evidence to the contrary.
As one critic noted, "Holocaust-denial materials are based on deliberate
fabrications of the historical record and are offensive not only to Jewish
persons, but to anyone who believes that history should be an accurate record
of the past (or as accurate as possible)."
The major publishers of Holocaust-denial material
in the U.S. are the Institute for Historical Review and the Noontide Press. The
WWW has proven to be an excellent vehicle for making this
"revisionist" thinking accessible to many people in a format that
seems "scholarly."
Photo duplication has made a dramatic difference
in the conduct of historical research. With photo duplication widely available,
the historian could copy large amounts of primary source material and then
read, ponder, analyze at leisure.
Historians, perhaps more than other social
scientists, need an information system. They must develop techniques to
identify, scan, index, file and retrieve large amounts of written material
relative for their projects. Most still use note cards, sometimes thousands of
them.
Language used is often imprecise and ambiguous.
Authority control for dates, and proper names [people and places] is a
continuing problem.
From the beginning, historians and non-historians
have attacked the objectivity of historical research. While there have always
been historians who were advocates for a particular viewpoint, there may be
more today than in the past. Revisionist
history is historical research that defies the
conventional truths. For example, revisionist history represents the view of
the disadvantaged and the ordinary. It is less Euro centric and more global in
its orientation. As you might imagine, this is controversial stuff. At one
time, the U.S. Senate on a 99-1 vote declared a revisionist curriculum to be
"anti-American." Whose history should be taught? As one proponent of
the new history said, many feel that students should not learn that "
every society's history is full of paradox, ambiguity, and irresolution."
There is still some controversy about historical
research that is focused on data sets. Because data is often limited, this
orientation limits historical research to certain topics and periods where data
is likely to be available. Too, there is the question about the validity and
reliability of the data used and its interpretation.
Poor teaching of history in K12 education,
especially when focused on names and dates, has caused many Americans to
believe that history is boring and irrelevant to daily life. One critic notes
that high school history texts are 'about as exciting as listening to an
eight-hour speech by Fidel Castro." Vivid events are "lost in a rush
of names and dates." As Elaine May says, "high school history, in my
memory, made students docile, unquestioning, and passive."
In contrast, museums that make history immediate
and interesting are popular with children and adults. All the adults engaged in
Civil War enactments, for example, are certainly serious about history. Family
history or genealogy is enormously popular.
Although many historians remain suspicious of the
web because there is so much disinformation on it, a growing number of
substantial resources are available that include useful primary source
material. While these sites are more likely to be used by teachers than
scholars, they may be useful to some scholars and many graduate students. Here
are a few examples:
Historians want primary sources since historical
research is to be an "original" contribution. Secondary sources are
also useful to provide access to the published literature. State and regional
periodicals are especially important for U.S. history. As expected, scholars
work backward through the literature [pearl fishing] and are not heavy users of
indexing and abstracting services. Graduate students are more likely to use
these services.
Humanities Abstracts [or Index] includes more historical material than the
companion Social Science Abstracts. These popular H.W. Wilson resources
are useful for undergraduate students, but are not likely to be used by
scholars. Selected full text is included from 1995.
America: History and Life began in 1964. History is broadly defined and here
includes some cultural anthropology, women's and gender studies, social
history, and history of particular fields. About 2000 periodicals are covered
with 75 to 125 word abstracts. "America" includes the U.S. and
Canada. Dissertation abstracts and some book and media reviews are also
included. About 90 percent of the articles were published in English. There is
little retrospective coverage. Monographic publications are not consistently
included. Abstracts contain minimal information. Critics say that the
descriptors are inadequate. Periodicals are not indexed from cover to cover
since articles must be at least 3 pages long. About 16,000 new entries are
added each year. Searching is not as intuitive as it might be, but is much
better in the CD-ROM version. Historical Abstractsts is similar. Note
that it ONLY covers historical periods from 1450 forward and in literature
issued from 1955. It adds about 21,000 entries each year.
Arts and Humanities Citation Index began in 1975- and is part of the ISI citation index
family. The print version is difficult to use. Descriptors are problematic.
Covers much of the historical literature. The citation linkages can be valuable
in showing the linkages between published work. It is rarely used by
historians.
The various editions of Sociological Abstracts
can be useful for history because of the overlap between social history and
historical sociology.
PAIS can be useful for recent political history,
administrative history and perhaps economic history.
The Combined Retrospective Index Set to
Journals in History, 1838 - 1974 is a
useful convenience package for those who have access to a library that holds
it. The keyword indexing is problematic.
History Reviews Online began in 1995. Reviewers must at least be completing
requirements for the PH.D. HRO reviews books and on-line materials.
The irony is there is too much material, but never
enough of the right material. The number of historical books increased by 53%
from 1980 - 1991.
Because of budgetary problems, local collections
are increasingly inadequate and ILL can be a painful experience. Shrinking
travel budgets make it more difficult for many historians to travel to better,
distant collections. Increased collection emphasis on serials has reduced the
amount of mony that many libraries spend on monographs.
Inadequate subject access remains a problem.
Standard date and time span indicators are needed. Standardized geo-political
unit names and the names major historical figures would also be most helpful.
Even topic or theme names may vary from source to source.
Much primary source material is relatively
invisible. Better intellectual access to collections of papers is sorely
needed, but would be expensive for the host library.
For many years, history was the heart of the
library's collections and historians have been the library's most enthusiastic
users. History consisted mainly of political, constitutional, and some
religious documents. Collections emphasized political - administrative sources.
Archives were seen as the political memoirs of nations. Most historians are
bibliophiles and see the library as their laboratory. Human interest in history
created the need for libraries. Earlier, many historians were also librarians.
Even today, many librarians have a background in history. There is some tradition
of historians meeting their own bibliographic needs.
Historians are frequent library users. Historians
have high expectations of the research library. Historians and librarians
usually work well together. Still, historians don't consult with librarians much.
In fact, historians are trained to do their own literature searching and this
is very much at the heart of what a historian does. Browsing
is an important part of this process. Reference librarians are often ignored
because they are seen as generalists who lack the depth of knowledge needed by
the historian. Historians do consult with special collections librarians,
subject bibliographers, and archivists because they often have substantial
subject knowledge.
Since no library can have a comprehensive historical
collection, historians are heavy users of ILL. Prompt, efficient ILL services
make a considerable difference to the historian.
Local history has always been the building block
of state and national history. Libraries have not always done a good job of
collecting broadly in this area. The unique responsibility of each library is
to develop a comprehensive local history collection for its community,
including government publications, local newspapers and periodicals. Many local
history publications are not indexed
Classification remains a difficult problem.
Historical material is hopelessly scattered in L.C. schedules. Religious
history is in the Bs. Political history is in the Js. There is much more to
history than what is found in the C - F schedules. Historians need intellectual
access for chronological and geographical aspects. There is an obvious need for
well-developed, controlled vocabularies. Authority control for names and dates
is essential. Obsolete subject headings are a continuing problem. For example,
"European War" instead of World War I. Historian's language is a
melange of words and phrases from everyday life. It is often notably different
from the language used by the Library of Congress. Periodization is often a
problem since the periods, e.g. France, 1789-1914, may be arbitrary or based
upon a particular interpretation of events.
Rapid growth in the literature creates many
problems. Book reviews are important because of the evaluative information
about new books. Perhaps as many as 40 percent of new U.S. history books not
reviewed outside historical periodicals. Works issued by government agencies
are rarely reviewed. The smaller, more specialized scholarly history
periodicals have the least overlap. However, because of considerable time lag,
these reviews only useful for retrospective collection development purposes.
Historically, browsing has been important to historians and browsing in the
library, especially the new book shelf, is another way to keep current.
Bibliographies are heavily used, but historians
are less concerned about currency and keeping up with the literature. There is
less use of indexing and abstracting services. These are inconvenient because
until recently they were only available at the library. They are usually dated.
Subject access is often inadequate, especially by time [or period]. On-line
data bases yield too many items with no obvious distinction between the good
and the trivial. Indexing and abstracting services do not evaluate the quality,
originality, or utility of an item. Abstracts do not provide enough information
to make a relevance decision. Use of these sources is not efficient. It is
difficult to codify an inquiry by topic, period, country, subject, or method.
Lack of a precise vocabulary is a continuing problem.
Political science has been an important
contributor to the literature of history, sometimes accounting for as much as
50 percent of the older history literature in the U.S. There is considerable
subject dispersion with the traditional history classes--C,D, E, and
F--accounting for only 33 percent of the citations. Political science is still
the most often cited of the other social sciences, at lease 20 percent and some
increase recently. Social science in the Hs accounts for about 11 percent and
is growing in importance to historians. Law remains important with about 6
percent of the citations.
As expected, historians frequently use older
material. In U.S. history, as much as 70 percent of the material cited is older
than 25 years.
More so than most social scientists, historians
speak of the importance of serendipity or browsing to discover accidental
relationships. The ability of the historian to browse collections in person is
important. Context is important to historians. Not just the text of those who
were present at the event, but everything from the time of the event can be
used to place the event in context. Serendipity often reveals relevant
contextual items.
Digital resources present opportunities for the
historian:
There are also problems:
While time will certainly assist in solving some
of these problems, they will likely persist in the short term. Accuracy is
crucial in historical research and many historians remain skeptical about the
accuracy and completeness of primary source material available via the
Internet.
Primary sources--original documentation by those
who were at the even--are absolutely essential. Primary sources might include
texts, correspondence, diaries, and governmental proceedings. Newspaper
accounts of those on the scene have also been heavily used. There has been
relatively little use of nonprint materials, but the Vanderbilt Television News
Archive illustrates the utility of video material as primary sources. Data sets
such as census material would also qualify. Often, primary source material is
unpublished and is found in special collections or archives. Oral history is
increasingly important. In the past few years, much useful source material has
been filmed and is now available for purchase in large microformat sets. These
are often very expensive, intellectual access may be a problem, and the
microformat tends to be unpopular with users.
Social/cultural history places some emphasis on
ephemera and popular material that libraries have been reluctant to collect.
Primary source materials to support research on the history of popular culture
might include menus, catalogs, popular sheet music, comic books, pulp
magazines, and a wide range or ephemera or vertical file material.
Special collections and archives are important
because they contain unique collections of primary source material. Historical
societies are often important for U.S. history. Researchers will need to travel
to remote collections. Some special collections favor local versus external
scholars. It may be difficult to identify which special collection or archive
holds what, since many of these collections have limited intellectual access.
Much material is not cataloged and finding aids are limited to the most popular
collections. Subject access may be non-existent or marginal.
Secondary sources--written by those not there
using primary materials--are important too The monograph, a book-length
treatment of a single subject, often published by university presses, remains
the single most important secondary source and the primary mode of presenting
historical research.
The importance of foreign language competency
varies notably with the historical topic. Obviously, foreign language material
is essential for those interested in the history of foreign places. A wide
range of foreign language items will interest the historian. German, French,
and Spanish languages are especially important. Use studies indicate that
relatively little foreign language material is actually used by the average
historian.
Historical material does not normally cumulate or
become obsolete so that older sources remain useful and heavily used.
Preservation and conservation are a continuing concern. Out of print material
is a problem, especially with replacements or retrospective collection
development. Preservation a growing problem. Both primary and secondary source
materials are turning into dust. Only a few are likely to be preserved.
Microforms have been the favored preservation
medium for historical materials. If well done, microformats will last for
several hundred years. Digital media are still suspect and there is the
"refreshing" problem. Librarians like the space-saving feature of
microforms, but don't like the fact that many sets are very expensive. Many
unique items are available only in this format. Historians don't like
microforms for all of the obvious reasons:
Academic publishing of historical monographs may
sell no more than 500 - 1,000 copies. Much of the market for serious historical
monographs is institutional and library book budgets have declined in recent
years. U.S. history sells better than foreign. Some popular history subjects do
much better. Civil War history is a good example because it appeals to many
enthusiasts. Historical works with broader scope have better sales because they
may reach a larger audience.
Thoughtful popularizations are popular with
teachers. Print, video, and digital formats are useful in the classroom.
Material needs to be colorful, appealing, and age.
Library of Congress created the American Memory or
the National Digital Library Program in 1989. A wide variety of major
collections of primary source material is now available via the web. There is
an amazing depth, range, and diversity of items in multiple media and perspectives.
Truly, this is a national treasure. There are a growing number of excellent www
sites, such as A & E's Biography site. There are also many terrible
ones and it may be difficult for many to tell the difference between fact and
fiction.
Biography, including autobiography, remains
enormously popular with many teachers. The Dictionary of American Biography
is now available on CD-ROM. Gale¹s Biography and Genealogy Master Index
is a marvelous source and is available in several editions.
Many adults are interested in popular history,
often about events that happened earlier in their life. Many are interested in
history as it relates to a hobby or leisure interest. For example, the railroad
modeler is interested in detailed railroad history and the airplane modeler is
interested in detail aviation history about particular airplanes. History is
quite popular. American Heritage has long been well received and well
read. The History Channel is popular for those with cable television. Short,
clearly written, and well-illustrated works sell and circulate well.
Biographical information continues to be popular. Military history is popular
with many men.
Amateur historians need how to do it material, especially
for family and local history. Family history in particular may require
expensive comprehensive collections and amateur historians may require
considerable hand holding. Friends groups are often interested in funding
genealogical collections. Some libraries discourage genealogists. Properly
handled, they may become enthusiastic and powerful advocates for library
collections and services. They are often determined and quickly become regular
library users. Most novice genealogists lack basic research skills and will
need help. However, they are usually determined, enthusiastic, and learn
quickly. Many genealogy queries will involve use of Census materials. Every
library should have a copy of The Librarian's Genealogy Notebook: A Guide to
Resources by Dahrl Moore, Ancestry's Red Book: American State, County
& Town Sources, and Val Greenwood's Researcher's Guide to American
Genealogy. All but the smallest public library should provide basic
handbooks, guides and a selected list of comprehensive WWW sites. larger
libraries will need Genealogical & Local History Books in Print, the
Genealogy Annual, and the Periodical Source Index.
While there are several areas of history that can
be controversial, the best known example is the Holocaust denial literature. If
one believes that the library ought to provide an opportunity for adults to
experience and evalute the logic and the evidence of controversial views, some
of this material should be available. However, Holocaust denial literature is
so objectionable to many that it is unusual to find it in any library, public
or academic. Only a few large academic libraries will hold extremist materials.
The library literature focuses on the scholarly
audience and the research library. Reference service to other audiences receives
less attention.
While some students enjoy history, most student
use is correlated to particular school assignments. Public libraries need to
work closely with local school library media specialists to insure that they
are aware of social studies or U.S. history assignments likely to place heavy
demands on libraries.
Many historical questions can be answered by the
encyclopedia collection, but many teachers prohibit the use of encyclopedias.
Fact books, handbooks, and specialized encyclopedias are popular. Chronologies,
such as the Encyclopedia of American Facts and Dates or the Chronology
of World History by Mellersh and Williams, are often in demand. Often,
students may need pictures for a report. While many will find these in the
CD-ROM reference works bundled with their computer or on the web, some will
search in the library. Sources with larger print, clear tables and figures,
illustrations, and which are easy to use will be popular.
Gale now provides the "History Resource
Center: US" an Internet database that provides access to full-text
documents, periodical articles, and multi-media in an integrated collection of
facts, primary documents, and scholarly analysis. "Overall, the source
encompasses some 25,000 narrative biographies; over 15,000 essays and overviews
of events, topics, and eras; almost 200,000 full-text articles; over 1300
images; and 34 original maps from Yale." Easily used, with an engaging
interface, and an excellent introduction to historical research, this would appeal
to high school and many college students. More information is available the History
Resource Center: U.S. WWW site. It is likely that such convenience
packages will increase in the future and will be especially popular in
libraries serving high school students and college undergraduates.
To what degree should the library support the
needs of the amateur historian?
How might a public library develop and maintain a
reasonably comprehensive local history collection?
Historians typically do not use indexing and
abstracting services. Is this a problem? If yes, what should the academic
librarian do about it?
Microformats are a good preservation medium, but
tend to be under used because of user dislike. What might the librarian to do
stimulate the use of this expensive resources?
The historical record
seems to be disappearing and it is likely that many digital documents will be
deleted and return to the vapor. What, if anything, should information
professionals do about this.
About.com has guides to a variety of history topics.
This one is devoted to ancient history.
Lycos also has a guide to history resources on the Internet.
AlternaTime
is a collection of timelines for various topics.
The International Institute
of Social History is particularly strong in labor and women's
history with links to scholarly work.
HyperHistory
Online includes color coded timelines for events from the past 3000
years.
The History place
provides essays and links on a good variety of topics.
Biography
of America is attractive and includes good content.
Cornell
University's Making of America is a digital collection of useful
primary source material.
America at
War has good time lines and details about wars and military campaigns.
Here is
an excellent military history site from Canada. You may browse by
period or by subject.
the Access
Indiana Teaching & Learning Center Subject Guide to History/Social Studies
includes a variety of helpful links for K12 teachers.
History Matters
from George Mason and the City University of New York is a rich source for HS
and college history teachers of U.S. history.
Yale University, in its
excellent subject guide series, has
a subject guide for American History and American Studies.
The New York Public
Library has created a useful guide to Selected Internet Resources in History.
About.com's
genealogy guide is especially helpful for beginners.
Cyndi's List of
Genealogy Sites on the Internet is probably the largest collection
of genealogy links. Weekly updates.
RootsWeb
also claims to the the largest site of WWW links. Good coverage of genealogy
mailing lists.
Ancestry Home Town
is a fee-based service, but some files are free including the Social Security
Death Index and the World Tree.
The
USGenWeb Project hopes to have a WWW page and linked information
from each state and county in the U.S. Created by volunteers.
AfriGeneas
is an excellent site for those interested in ancestors of African descent. Good
beginner's guide. Available informatin varies notably from state to state.
Surnames database is useful.
The
National Archives and Records Genealogy Page describes its census,
immigration, and military records.
GenDoor is
a genealogy search engine.
Cemetery records are
often important in genealogy. Interment.net contains searchable information
for over 1700 world cemeteries, most in the U.S. Cemetery
Junction is not well organized but lists over 18,000 cemeteries in
the U.S.
For younger students, My History is
America's History provides useful information on family history.
Historical
Atlas of the Twentieth Century is sometimes opinionated and is
nearly always fascinating. Many useful, often thematic, maps illustrate major
events or situations.
Perhaps the single best
source is The Librarian's Genealogy Notebook by Elizabeth D.
Moore. Includes coverage of the reference interview, annotated biblliographies,
and a variety of essential topics.
Ancestry's Red
Book provides a rich variety of
sources for each state and the District of Columbia. Country and town
information is especially helpful.
Two especially useful
guides to genealogical resources are Printed Sources: A Guide to
Published Genealogical Records by Kory Meyerink and The
Source: A Guidebook of American Genealogy by Loretta Szucs and Sandra
Luebking.
Family
History Resources on the Internet by the Immigration History Research Center at
the University of Minnesota is especially useful for ethnic group
sources.
1. The William C.
Robinson Memorial Library has just received volume 2 of the Cambridge
History of the Native Peoples of the Americas [MesoAmerica]. Since
other Cambridge histories are shelved in the Reference Department, your
colleague wants to do the same with this set. Examine this source and provide a
rationale for placing this set either in the reference room or in the stacks.
Focus on the degree to which the Cambridge histories are "genuine"
reference works. Who would use them and how?
2. A faculty member
wishes you to order the Times History of the World edited by
Richard Overy. You have some questions about the utility of this work. First,
what is it? An atlas? A history? If it is "real" reference work, what
information would it provide that could not be found in any of the standard
sources already on the reference shelves? Select a topic to compare coverage in
this work with standard ones.
3. A faculty member in
the history department needs help in creating a home page with links to sources
in American women's history. Identify, and evaluate a few comprehensive sites.
You might begin with American Women's History: a Research guide.
Would ViVAa
Bibliography of Women's History in Historical and Women's Studies Journals
be useful? Other good sites?
3a. A student
interested in U.S. history wants to know if primary historical documents may be
found on the www. You might begin with The
American Colonist: a treasury of primary documents or the
Nineteenth Century Documents Project. Other useful sites? How easy
would it be for this student to find these same documents in a reasonably
equipped college library?
3b. A student of
genealogy visiting Great Britain is interested in locating records relating to
relatives who Huguenots. You might begin with British Archives: a guide
to archive resources in the UK [Ref CD 1040 .F67 1995] and Genealogical
Research in England's Public Record Office: A Guide for North Americans. How
helpful were these? Other useful sources?
4. A library science
faculty member teaching a course in the history of the book is revising his
lecture on Gutenberg. He wishes to know what notable events occurred in the
1450s when the first European book was printed from movable metal type and who
might be contemporaries of Gutenberg. Which source would provide the best
answer? You might begin with The Chronology of the Modern World ,
and Lifelines: famous contemporaries from 600 BC to 1975 [Ref
CT 104 .W45]. Other useful sites? Please include some comment on the utility of
time line resources.
4b. An undergraduate
student seeks reliable information on Pocahontas. Begin with the general
encyclopedias, then Native American sources such as Encyclopedia of
Native American Biography. Which sources are best? Similarities and
differences between the sources?
5. A public school
teacher wants to know if Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's "Paul Revere's
Ride" is authentic in its description of this historic event. What would
you do and what can you find out?
5a. An undergraduate
student needs contemporary accounts of the Spanish Civil War. What is
available? Suggest an appropriate search strategy.
6.
7. A public library
patron has found a reference to Hannah Atkins as a notable American woman. What
did she do? You might begin with American Women's History. Also
consider Notable Black American Women [Ref E 185.96 .N68
1996], Who's Who Among African-Americans [Ref E 185.96 .W46
1994] and Black Saga: The African American Experience. To what
degree are women of color found in standard biographical reference works?
8. As an academic
reference librarian and Choice reviewer you have received A
Companion to the American Revolution. You have noticed that several
publishers are issuing "companions" on a variety of historical
topics. To what degree are these reference books that should be in the
reference room rather than circulating works for the stacks? Using the American
Revolution work as an example, what does a companionoffer that would not be
found in the usual reference works? You might also consider the larger question
of what is a reference work.
8a.
9. A graduate student
needs relatively recent scholarship on Gabriele D'Annunzio, the Italian patriot
and political leader. You encourage her to use Historical Abstracts,
but wonder if other databases would also be helpful. Which other titles would
you consider? How helpful were they?
9a.
10. A patron wishes to
know the population of Charlottsville, VA in 1870. Discuss your search strategy
and the difficulty in locating the answer.
*11. A patron wishes to
know about Thomas Jefferson's attitude toward slavery. Without too much
thought, you suggest that she search America: History and Life .
In retrospect, was this the best first step? Why?
12.
13. A patron needs help
in finding biographical information on Vidkun Quizling. You think of the old
standard, the Chambers Biographical Dictionary [Ref CT 103 .C4
1986], but want to consider other sources such as the McGraw-Hill
Encyclopedia of World Biography [Ref CT 103 .M27] or even a more
specialized source such as Who's Who in World War II [Ref D
736 .M38] or Biographical Dictionary of World War II. How does
Chambers compare to other biographical sources?
13A. A patron needs
help in locating information on the Theban general Epaminondas. You might begin
with Who's Who in the Greek World. Other useful sources?
14. A graduate student
interested in railroad history, especially in the South, wonders if there are
archival or manuscript collections of primary source material that might
provide enough stuff for a thesis or dissertation. What can you find? You might
begin with the Directory of Archives and Manuscript repositories in the
United States [Ref CD 3020 .D49 1988] and the Directory of
Oral History Collections[Ref D 16.14 .Sg 1988]. Other useful sources?
15. As a reference
librarian with an assignment to history, you are responsible for developing
both the reference collections and the general collections housed in the
stacks. Which scholarly periodicals in history would you review regularly to
keep up with the field and to develop the collections? You might begin with Reviews
in American History [Per Z 1236 .R47].
16. A high school
student seeks information on the War of Jenkin's Ear. You might begin with the Collins
Dictionary of Wars [D 25.A2B78], but also look at reference works for
U.S. History. Which is best for what?
17. A high school
student needs the terms of the Versailles Treaty. You might begin with the Encyclopedia
of American History [Ref E174.5 .M847 1982], the Macmillan
Dictionary of the First World War[ Ref D 510 .P66 1995] or the
United States in the First World War: an encyclopedia [Ref D 510 .U65
1995]. Compare these answers with what you would find in your favorite general
encyclopedia. Close with a comment on the value of topical reference works in
history.
18. An undergraduate
student taking a general world history course has found three terms in his
notes that he cannot place: "Rapallo," "annales", and
"Frérèche." You might begin with the Dictionary of Historical
Terms [Ref D 20 .C64 1989], but look at other dictionaries too. Which
one provides the best definitions of these terms? {Please do not do more than
one dictionary question.}
18A. A patron needs
help in understanding the meaning of these words: "dialectic," and
"imperialism." She wants more than a brief dictionary definition but
doesn't want to read an entire monograph either. Can you find handbooks or
companions that would help?
19. A middle school
student, and parent, need more information on the seven wonders of the ancient
world. Compare treatment in children's, adult, and subject encyclopedias. You
might also take a quick look at WWW resources. Best source?
20.
21. A public library
patron has recently read a work by William Hickling Prescott and would like to
know more about him. You might begin with American Historians [Ref
PS 221 .D49 ] or Great Historians of the Modern Age [Ref D 14
.G75 1991] because the titles seem appropriate. What other sources would be
useful?
22. You have received
requests for The Hammond Atlas of World History, The
Cassell Atlas of the Early Modern World: 1492 - 1783 [REF G 1035 H389
1998], and the Cassell Atlas of the 19th Century World: 1783: 1914
[REF G 1035.H392 1998]. Compare one of these works with the standard general
historical atlases. Are these worthwhile additions? Why?
23.
24. Because of a
funding problem, you are reviewing annual publications in history. A colleague
has suggested that the International Bibliography of the Historical
Sciences [Ref D 13.I58] could well be dropped. You say that it is one
of the standards in the field. Take a careful look at this source and compare
it with similar works. Could we drop this title? Why?
25. A patron needs
information about the Knoxville sit-ins for a course on recent U.S. History
which requires a term paper [about 10 pages] on a topic of student interest. Her
professor suggested that she begin with Writings on American History
[Ref E 178 .W758] and Recently Published Articles [Ref D 1
.A54], but she didn't like their looks. Would the Tennessee
encyclopedia of History & Culture REF F 436 .T525 1998] be helpful?
What sources would be best for providing the student with the citations for her
paper? How much can you find? Please add a comment on the utility of Writings
on American History and Recently Published Articles.
26. You are a library
science faculty member about to teach a course in history resources and
services. You are considering a text. Would United States History: a
selective guide to information sources [Ref E 178 .B63 1994], Reference
Sources in History: an introductory guide [Ref D 20 .F72 1990] or the Handbook
for Research in American History [Ref E 178 .P72 1994] be appropriate?
27.
28. A patron has a
reference to Sojourner Truth and wishes to know more about her. You might
consult and compare the Dictionary of American Biography [CT
211 .D5 1957] and Notable American Women [Ref CT 3260 .N57].
What other works were useful? A colleague notes that women are often under
represented in standard biographical reference works. What do you think based
upon this experience?
29. A high school
student is looking for reliable material on Julius Caesar. You might begin with
From Aristotle to Zoroaster:An A-to-Z Companion to the Classical World
[REF CB 311 .C83 1998] or the Chronicle of the Roman Emperors
by Chris Scarre. What other sources might be useful? You might also consider
the Research Guide to European Historical Biography [Ref CT
759 .R4 1992]. Other useful sources?
29A. A high school
teacher needs just a few comprehensive sites on U.S. history, especially for
the colonial period. Identify and evaluate three to five good sites.
29B. The American
Memory Project has received a great deal of media attention. Examine the American Memory WWW
site, browse in a few of the collections and comment on their likely
utility for K12 students and teachers.
29C.
31. A parent needs a
picture that can be photocopied for an elementary school project of the Union
Navy's ironclad Monitor and the Confederate Virginia (previously named
Merrimack). You might begin with the Album of American History [Ref
E 178.5 .A48 1981]. How helpful is a collection of images such as this as
compared to finding specialized work on a subject and looking for illustrations
in it? Anything useful on the WWW? Which source provided the best images of
these famous warships?
32. A student in a
military history course needs maps of the Revolutionary War. She is especially
interested in campaigns in the South. You might begin with the Atlas of
American History [Ref G1201 .S1F4 1993], Mapping America's
Past: A Historical Atlas [STX G 1201 .S1C3 1996] or the Dent
Atlas of American History[REF G 1201 .S1G5 1993] and the Historical
Atlas of the United States [Ref 1201 .S1N3 1988]. Are these general
U.S. Historical atlases useful or should you use the military history atlases
sometimes not found in smaller collections?
32b.
33c. A student of
military history is interested in maps of the Seven Years War. You might begin
with the Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: Renaissance to
Revolution. How does this compare to similar sources?
33D. Can you find
anything at the World War I Document Archive, Old
Contemptible's Great War Website or at World War I: Trenches
on the Web that you would not find in a hard copy reference book on
WWI?
33. A patron has found
a reference to the "Baghdad railway crisis" and needs some background
information. You might begin with the Encyclopedia of World History [Ref
D 21 .L27 1972]. Where would you go next?
34. A high school
student wants to know if St. Patrick was a real person or a mythical one. You
might begin with the Dictionary of the Middle Ages [Ref D 114
.D5 1982]. What other print sources would be accessible and reasonably
accurate? Can you find anything useful on the web?
35. An amateur
historian wonders if there is a historical society or historical periodical
devoted to covered bridges. Where would you begin? Can you find such a society?
36.
36A.
36B. A colleague wants
the library to add The National Geographic Society Atlas of World
History [REF G 1021 .N38 1997] to the collection. What does this work
contain that is not found in other general or historical atlases?
37. You have been asked
to review the U.S. History chronologies in the Department and suggest one for
the ready reference shelf. At the same time, you have received a query about
the Bear Flag Republic and decide to use that to compare responses in the
different chronologies. You might begin with Great Dates in U.S.
History [Ref E 174.5 .G7 2 1994] and the Encyclopedia of
American History. or the American Heritage Encyclopedia of
American History [REF E 174 .A535 1998]Which of the several
chronologies is best? Why?
37a. You have been been
asked to consider adding the Almanacs of American Life: Revolutionary
America [Ref E 162 .P86 1994] and the Columbia Chronicles of
American Life [Ref E169.1 .G667 1995]. What would these titles add to
a reference collection that already contained such standard titles as A
Dictionary of American History [ Ref E 174 .P87 1995], the New
York Public Library American History Desk Reference [REF E 174 .N48
1997] and the Encyclopedia of American Facts and Dates [Ref E
174.5 .C3 1993].
38. A newspaper
reporter has been asked to write a feature on 1902 for an early 2002 issue of
the paper. She has asked for you help in identifying trends, fads, and events
of 1902. Which sources were most useful for this purpose? You might begin with The
People's Chronology [Ref D 11 .T83 1994].
39. A school child
needs to know about the extinction of the Passenger Pigeon. Why did it become
extinct? She would also like a picture to illustrate a class report.
40. A community member
wants to know about registered historic places in Blount County, Tennessee. You
might begin with the National Register of Historic Places [Ref
E 159 .N3419 1996] or the the National Trust for Historic Preservation.
Where might you go next?
41. An internet trainer
has been asked to develop a workshop on comprehensive genealogical sources on
the WWW. She has read about the Family Search on-line by the Church of Jesus Christ of the
Latter-day Saints and wonders about its utility. What can you find
out about this source?